Stephen Malpezzi

Urban Indicators

Circa 1990, the World Bank and UN Habitat (not to be confused with Habitat for Humanity International) began a data collection project called Housing and Urban Development Indicators (HUDI).

HUDI came out of two ideas. The first was a realization of the importance of careful international comparisons, as demonstrated by the success of the World Bank's World Development Indicators (WDI). (NB: "careful" and "success" does not imply "perfect." WDI and other international comparisons are always subject to error.)

The second inspiration for HUDI was an increase in comparative research on housing markets, initially that carried out by a group of World Bank affiliated researchers.

The original HUDI project was spearheaded by Steve Mayo and Shlomo ("Solly") Angel based at the World Bank, with additional support from Habitat. Mayo and Angel developed a questionnaire and instructions and recruited a team of researchers from over 50 countries to carry out the survey, generally in the capital city. We refer to this as "Wave I."


Wave I HUDI
Data were collected and first published circa 1993. The first wave collected some 50 variables, comprising data on, among other things, demographic basics, incomes, housing rents and prices, size and quality of housing, financing, and transportation. The variables described in more detail in the documentation below.

A good starting point is to examine the list of 10 key indicators from 53 countries (mainly the capital city, often also the largest). These ten key indicators are briefly defined here. They are described more fully in Malpezzi, Stephen and Stephen K. Mayo. Housing and Urban Development Indicators: A Good Idea Whose Time Has Returned. Real Estate Economics, 25(1), 1997, pp. 1-11. A freely available downloadable version can be found here.

The more complete listing of final variables, and description, from Wave I can be downloaded here.

The most complete analysis of the 1993 version of the indicators is by Shlomo Angel, Housing Policy Matters: A Global Analysis (Oxford University Press, 2000, available from fine bookstores everywhere).

See also the detailed review of Angel's book by Michael Murray, Journal of Housing Economics, Volume 10, Issue 2, June 2001, Pages 210-215.


Wave II and Wave III HUDI
After this first effort the HUDI was taken over by UN Habitat as the World Bank reduced its support for urban research. Two additional waves of data collection were carried out and collated under Habitat's umbrella, in 1996 and 1998. Advantages of these waves include a larger sample size (more countries, and especially multiple cities from many of the countries). A number of variables were also added. But the second and third waves did not present useful data on household income, which is important for many analyses.

Also, the second and third waves concentrated on housing disputes and outcomes to the exclusion of housing policies. Research from the first wave, and much other research including the precursor housing market research at the World Bank, demonstrated the importance of understanding the policy environment.

As of this writing, I have not been able to successfully link to the correct pages to download at the UN site. Here are the UN's pdfs by module:

List of cities <Population Households Income Socioeconomic Variables Housing Part 1, Part 2 Housing Tenure Land Use Infrastructure
  • Transportation
  • The United Nations has made changes to the Global Urban Observatory, focusing on a smaller number of indicators, but still useful. Click here to visit this source.


    Overall Comments
    A full evaluation of the HUDI project is beyond the scope of our discussion. Here we present a few germane points. HUDI has put the problems and promises of comparative urban data analysis more widely on the international research agenda. Specific research results in the publications listed below have taught us about determents of housing terms, the effects of financial and development regulation on rents and prices, and so on. On the other side of the balance sheet, it has proven difficult to undertake a necessarily decentralized data collection process, with dozens of national consultants contributing data. Despite efforts to write careful and detailed survey instructions, they are inevitably subject to differences in interpretation; and actual definitions and practices can vary more from place to place than HUDI labels imply. For example, consider questions on how many households own or rent. The bundle of property rights associated with each tenant can vary quite substantially from one country to another, or even within a county. One "owner" can "own" a structure erected on public land without title, another owner can have a long term formal lease on the land; a third can own fee simple.

    HUDI data also largely ignore non-residential uses. There are no data on office, industrial, retail, or other commercial uses, or on vacant land. Several papers by Steve Mayo and Shlomo Angel demonstrate how HUDI can be used as a diagnostic tool to examine a country's housing market in global context.

    UN Habitat is also now less active in this data collection effort. A few smaller scale efforts are underway or have been undertaken. Malpezzi and Kim have (with help from two dozen colleagues around the world) produced a small dataset and used it in a diagnostic study highlighting Korea.


    Select Bibliography

    Angel, S. 2000. Housing policy matters: A global analysis: Oxford University Press.

    ________. 2001. The housing policy assessment and its application to panama. Journal of Housing Economics 10, no. 2: 176-209.

    Angel, S, SK Mayo, and WL Stephens. 1993. The housing indicators program: A report on progress and plans for the future. Journal of Housing and the Built Environment 8, no. 1: 13-48.

    More Angel, Shlomo and Stephen K Mayo. 1996. Enabling policies and their effects on housing sector performance: A global comparison. In International meeting of the American Real Estate and Urban Economics Association. Orlando.

    Arimah, BC. 1997. Housing policy outcomes in global perspective: An application of discriminant analysis. Journal of Housing and the Built Environment 12, no. 3: 257-280.

    ________. 2000. Housing-sector performance in global perspective: A cross-city investigation. Urban Studies 37, no. 13: 2551.

    Banaitis, A and N Banaitiene. 2007. Development of a rational housing model: The Lithuanian case. International Journal of Environment and Pollution 30, no. 3: 430-442.

    Bogdon, AS and A Can. 1997. Indicators of local housing affordability: Comparative and spatial approaches. Real Estate Economics 25, no. 1: 43-80.

    Buckley, RM and J Kalarickal. 2006. Thirty years of World Bank shelter lending: What have we learned?: World Bank Publications.

    Buckley, RM and S Tsenkova. 2001. Housing market systems in reforming socialist economies: Comparative indicators of performance and policy. European Journal of Housing Policy 1: 257-290.

    Daniell, J and R Struyk. 1997. The evolving housing market in Moscow: Indicators of housing reform. Urban Studies 34, no. 2: 235.

    Deutsch, E. 1997. Indicators of housing finance intergenerational wealth transfers. Real Estate Economics 25, no. 1: 129-172.

    Flood, J. 1993. Housing indicators in Australia: A consultative method. Journal of Housing and the Built Environment 8, no. 1: 95-124.

    ________. 1997. Urban and housing indicators. Urban Studies 34, no. 10: 1635.

    Goodman, JL. 1978. Causes and indicators of housing quality. Social Indicators Research 5, no. 1: 195-210.

    Hannah, L, A Bertaud, S Malpezzi, and S Mayo. 1989. Malaysia: The housing sector; getting the incentives right. World Bank Sector Report 7292.

    Hardman, A. 1993. Housing indicators: A tool for housing research in Europe? Journal of Housing and the Built Environment 8, no. 1: 67-76.

    Hegedüs, J and I Tosics. 1993. Housing indicators in transitional economies: A new tool for policy making. Journal of Housing and the Built Environment 8, no. 1: 85-94.

    Hegedüs, JA, I Tosics, and SK Mayo. 1996. Transition of the housing sector in the East Central European countries. Review of Urban & Regional Development Studies 8, no. 2: 101-136.

    Kim, Kyung Hwan, Stephen Malpezzi, and Chung-Ho Kim. 2008. Property rights, regulations and housing market performance. Seoul: Center for Free Enterprise; and Friederich Naumann Stiftung fur die Freiheit.

    Li, Y and E Rosenblatt. 1997. Can urban indicators predict home price appreciation? Implications for redlining research. Real Estate Economics 25, no. 1: 81-104.

    Lujanen, M. 1993. How useful are housing indicators as a tool for housing policy in Europe? Journal of Housing and the Built Environment 8, no. 1: 77-84.

    Malpezzi, Stephen. 2001. The contributions of Stephen K. Mayo to housing and urban economics. Review of 2001. Journal of Housing Economics 10, no. 2: 72-108.

    Malpezzi, S and SK Mayo. 1987. User cost and housing tenure in developing countries. Journal of Development Economics 25, no. 1: 197-220.

    ________. 1997. Housing and urban development indicators; a good idea whose time has returned. Real Estate Economics 25, no. 1.

    Malpezzi, Stephen and Stephen K. Mayo. 1987. The demand for housing in developing countries: Empirical estimates from household data. Review of 1987. Economic Development and Cultural Change 35, no. 4: 687-721.

    ________. 1987. User cost and housing tenure in developing countries. Journal of Development Economics 25, no. 1: 197-220.

    ________. 1997. Housing and urban development indicators; a good idea whose time has returned. Real Estate Economics 25, no. 1: 1-11.

    Mayo, SK. 1993. South African housing sector performance in international perspective. Mimeographed.

    Mayo, Stephen K., Stephen Malpezzi, and David J. Gross. 1986. Shelter strategies for the urban poor in developing countries. Review of 1986. World Bank Research Observer 1, no. 2: 183-203.

    Merrill, SR and E Kozlowski. 2001. Developing housing finance in a transition economy: The case of Poland. Journal of Housing Economics 10, no. 3: 363-392.

    Priemus, H. 1992. Housing indicators: An instrument in international housing policy? Journal of Housing and the Built Environment 7, no. 3: 217-238.

    Turner, B. 1993. Housing indicators: A tool for research? Journal of Housing and the Built Environment 8, no. 1: 61-66.

    Angel, Shlomo and Stephen K Mayo. 1996. Enabling policies and their effects on housing sector performance: A global comparison. In International meeting of the American Real Estate and Urban Economics Association. Orlando.

    Arimah, BC. 1997. Housing policy outcomes in global perspective: An application of discriminant analysis. Journal of Housing and the Built Environment 12, no. 3: 257-280.

    ________. 2000. Housing-sector performance in global perspective: A cross-city investigation. Urban Studies 37, no. 13: 2551.

    Banaitis, A and N Banaitiene. 2007. Development of a rational housing model: The Lithuanian case. International Journal of Environment and Pollution 30, no. 3: 430-442.

    Bogdon, AS and A Can. 1997. Indicators of local housing affordability: Comparative and spatial approaches. Real Estate Economics 25, no. 1: 43-80.

    Buckley, RM and J Kalarickal. 2006. Thirty years of World Bank shelter lending: What have we learned?: World Bank Publications.

    Buckley, RM and S Tsenkova. 2001. Housing market systems in reforming socialist economies: Comparative indicators of performance and policy. European Journal of Housing Policy 1: 257-290.

    Daniell, J and R Struyk. 1997. The evolving housing market in Moscow: Indicators of housing reform. Urban Studies 34, no. 2: 235.

    Deutsch, E. 1997. Indicators of housing finance intergenerational wealth transfers. Real Estate Economics 25, no. 1: 129-172.

    Flood, J. 1993. Housing indicators in Australia: A consultative method. Journal of Housing and the Built Environment 8, no. 1: 95-124.

    ________. 1997. Urban and housing indicators. Urban Studies 34, no. 10: 1635.

    Goodman, JL. 1978. Causes and indicators of housing quality. Social Indicators Research 5, no. 1: 195-210.

    Hannah, L, A Bertaud, S Malpezzi, and S Mayo. 1989. Malaysia: The housing sector; getting the incentives right. World Bank Sector Report 7292.

    Hardman, A. 1993. Housing indicators: A tool for housing research in Europe? Journal of Housing and the Built Environment 8, no. 1: 67-76.

    Hegedüs, J and I Tosics. 1993. Housing indicators in transitional economies: A new tool for policy making. Journal of Housing and the Built Environment 8, no. 1: 85-94.

    Hegedüs, JA, I Tosics, and SK Mayo. 1996. Transition of the housing sector in the East Central European countries. Review of Urban & Regional Development Studies 8, no. 2: 101-136.

    Kim, Kyung Hwan, Stephen Malpezzi, and Chung-Ho Kim. 2008. Property rights, regulations and housing market performance. Seoul: Center for Free Enterprise; and Friederich Naumann Stiftung fur die Freiheit.

    Li, Y and E Rosenblatt. 1997. Can urban indicators predict home price appreciation? Implications for redlining research. Real Estate Economics 25, no. 1: 81-104.

    Lujanen, M. 1993. How useful are housing indicators as a tool for housing policy in Europe? Journal of Housing and the Built Environment 8, no. 1: 77-84.

    Malpezzi, Stephen. 2001. The contributions of Stephen K. Mayo to housing and urban economics. Review of 2001. Journal of Housing Economics 10, no. 2: 72-108.

    Malpezzi, S and SK Mayo. 1987. User cost and housing tenure in developing countries. Journal of Development Economics 25, no. 1: 197-220.

    ________. 1997. Housing and urban development indicators; a good idea whose time has returned. Real Estate Economics 25, no. 1.

    Malpezzi, Stephen and Stephen K. Mayo. 1987. The demand for housing in developing countries: Empirical estimates from household data. Review of 1987. Economic Development and Cultural Change 35, no. 4: 687-721.

    ________. 1987. User cost and housing tenure in developing countries. Journal of Development Economics 25, no. 1: 197-220.

    ________. 1997. Housing and urban development indicators; a good idea whose time has returned. Real Estate Economics 25, no. 1: 1-11.

    Mayo, SK. 1993. South African housing sector performance in international perspective. Mimeographed.

    Mayo, Stephen K., Stephen Malpezzi, and David J. Gross. 1986. Shelter strategies for the urban poor in developing countries. Review of 1986. World Bank Research Observer 1, no. 2: 183-203.

    Merrill, SR and E Kozlowski. 2001. Developing housing finance in a transition economy: The case of Poland. Journal of Housing Economics 10, no. 3: 363-392.

    Priemus, H. 1992. Housing indicators: An instrument in international housing policy? Journal of Housing and the Built Environment 7, no. 3: 217-238.

    Turner, B. 1993. Housing indicators: A tool for research? Journal of Housing and the Built Environment 8, no. 1: 61-66.

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